Motivational Factors Toward Pursuing a Career in Special Education Essay Example for Free

Motivational Factors Toward Pursuing a Career in Special Education Essay This study investigated factors which motivated individuals to initially pursue careers in special education, factors which contributed toward their plans to remain or leave the field, and their perceptions of school districts effective and ineffective recruitment and retention practices. The sample comprised of 15 individuals employed in public schools throughout north Texas who initially pursued careers in special education. Data were collected through the form of audio-recorded semi-structured telephone interviews. Empathy towards students, family, and opportunities to fill job vacancies were factors that participants cited the most for initially pursuing careers in special education. Furthermore, most of the interviewees reported satisfaction within their jobs, but noted excessive demands and lack of administrative support as contributing to job dissatisfaction. Motivational Factors toward Pursuing a Career in Special Education. Chronic shortages in the field of special education continue to pose challenges for public schools across the United States (Billingsley, Carlson, Klein, 2004; Boe, 2006; Billingsley McLeskey, 2004; Brownell, Hirsch, Seo, 2004; Singh Billingsley, 1996; Strunk Robinson, 2006; Thornton, Peltier, Medina, 2007). The limited number of individuals entering and/or remaining in the field of special education has resulted in school districts inability to fill the necessary teaching positions; such shortages have been linked to difficulties in the recruitment and retention of qualified individuals (Olivarez Arnold, 2006). Although difficulties with the recruitment of teachers, low retention, and high attrition rates are evident across all teaching professions, it is much more prevalent among special educators. Specifically, teachers of students with emotional/behavioral disorders exhibit the largest shortage, followed by those serving students with severe/profound disabilities, and learning disabilities (McLeskey, Tyler, Flippin, 2004). Our national school districts are in a crisis. Specifically, districts are scrambling to find qualified special educators to fill the vacant teaching positions. According to Plash and Piotrowski (2006), a projected 611,550 positions in special education will need to be filled by the year 2010. However, the inability to recruit the necessary number of eligible individuals to fill positions continues to be a major problem for school administrators. An infinite number of research studies have been conducted in an attempt to identify barriers which deter people from entering the field (Billingsley, 2004; Gersten, Keating, Yovanoff, Harniss, 2001; McLeskey et al., 2004; Olivarez Arnold, 2006; Thornton, Peltier, Medina, 2007). Studies have identified perceptions of low social status associated with being a special educator, poor working conditions, high rates of stress, excessive paperwork, and low salaries with the decreased number of individuals entering the field of special education (Barmby, 2006; McLeskey et al. , 2004; Rice, Goeling, Peters, 2005). A vast amount of research also exists regarding factors which have contributed to the decisions of individuals to leave the field of special education (Billingsley, Carlson, Klein, 2004; Singh Billingsley, 1996; Thornton, Peltier, Medina, 2007) and consequently contribute to the shortage of and high attrition rates of special education teachers (Barmby, 2006; Fish Stephens, in press; McLeskey, Tyler, Saunders, 2004). According to Plash and Piotrowski (2006), 13. 2% of special education teachers leave their position each year. While six percent of special educators leave the field of education altogether, 7. 2% transfer to general education positions. Prevalent variables identified as contributors to the exodus from the field include occupational stress, burnout (Botwinik, 2007; Greiner Smith, 2006), weak support by administrators, unreasonable caseloads, large class size, low salaries (Darling-Hammond, 2003), testing and accountability pressures (Tye OBrien, 2002), and ineffective in-service programs (Kaufhold, Alverez, Arnold, 2006; Plash Piotrowski, 2006). A study conducted by Brownell, Smith, McNellis, and Lenk (1994) investigated the contextual variables related to teacher attrition. Findings indicated that those teachers who decided to stay in the field of special education were more committed to teaching students with disabilities, had a higher sense of efficacy, felt more prepared by their pre-service and initial teaching experiences, and exhibited more effective coping strategies than those who decided to leave the field. Two international studies were identified which focused on the motivating factors of individuals initially pursuing careers as general educators (Barmby, 2006; Watt Richardson, 2007). Based upon a study conducted in England and Wales, Barmby identified intrinsic (e. g. , the activity of teaching children) and altruistic (e. g. , desire to help children succeed) reasons which contributed to the teachers decision to pursue careers within the field of education. Similar findings (e. g., working with children, shape future of children, and make a social contribution) were reported by Watt and Richardson who investigated the motivational factors which influenced Australian individuals to initially pursue a career in general education. In addition to investigating special educators job satisfaction and decisions to remain in the field, obtaining an understanding of individuals motivations for entering the field of special education have implications which may assist in the increased recruitment and retention of special educators. Such findings would contribute to enhanced teacher educational planning, curriculum design and policy decisions. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to obtain perceptions of special educators with regards to factors that contributed toward their (a) initial pursuit of special education careers, (b) job satisfaction and/or dissatisfaction levels and (c) decisions whether to remain on the special education career path. Participants were further asked to provide recommendations that school districts could take to effectively recruit and retain special educators. Design of Study Qualitative methodology was utilized in this study in the form of audio-recorded semi-structured telephone interviews to obtain the perceptions of special educators. Qualitative research is appropriate in dealing with potentially multiple realities, mutually shaping influences, and value patterns (Lincoln Guba, 1985). Interviews serve the purpose of obtaining here-and-now constructions of persons, events, activities, organizations, feelings, motivations, claims, concerns, and other entities (p. 268). According to Bogdan and Biklen (1998), semi-structured interviews encourage interviewees to expand upon ideas, which provide the researcher opportunities to generate abstract ideas through descriptive material. Participants Respondents participating in this study consisted of 15 educators employed in public school districts throughout the north Texas area. This purposive sample was comprised of 11 special education teachers, three diagnosticians and one former special education teacher currently serving as a high school principal at the time of the interviews. Four of the 11 special education teachers within this study were previously general education teachers. Data Collection and Analysis The interview questions conducted for this study focused on factors which contributed toward special educators initially pursuing careers in special education in addition to conditions that would contribute toward them remaining in or leaving the field. Interviewees were additionally asked to provide feedback pertaining to their school districts special educator recruitment and retention efforts. The following open-ended questions were asked to each of the 15 participants.

Distinguishing Fear From Anxiety

Distinguishing Fear From Anxiety Introduction Anxiety disorders constitute the largest group of mental diseases in European countries {Andlin-Sobocki et al., 2005, Eur J Neurol, 12 Suppl 1, 1-27}. Human anxiety disorders can be categorized into generalized anxiety disorders, panic attacks, Posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD), Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and special phobias, are amongst the most prevalent with a 28% lifetime prevalence and an incidence of 18% {Kessler et al., 2005, Arch Gen Psychiatry, 62, 617-27}. Pathological expression of both fear and anxiety are thought to represent certain aspects of anxiety disorders. Specific phobias are considered, as fear disorders, whereas generalized anxiety is viewed as an example of anxiety disorders.   PTSD patients do not only suffer from conditioned fear symptoms to discrete cues that act as a reminder of a previous trauma, but they also exhibit persistent symptoms of sustained anxiety. The regulation of fear and anxiety is the heart of many psychopathological di sorders also reflected in the extremely high comorbidity rate with other mood disorders, such as depression. Up to 90% of individuals expressing an anxiety disorder also develop depression, which could increase suicide rates (Gorman, 1997) and constitutes a significant problem for the community in general. Currently available pharmacotherapies such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), have emerged as effective alternatives to the benzodiazepines and have been paralleled by a similar growth in effective and available psychological treatments, particularly cognitive and cognitive-behavioural therapy. A considerable portion of patients, however, requires long-term treatment throughout the whole life or does not respond at all. For coping with these limitations, focusing on a better understanding of these diseases and improved treatment is urgently needed. Distinguishing fear from anxiety Fear Vs Anxiety Fear- Behavioural manifestation associated with clearly identified imminent threat. Anxiety- Generalized fear without object, an apprehensive anticipation of future potential threats The main function of fear and anxiety is to act as a signal of danger, threat, or motivational conflict, and to trigger appropriate adaptive responses. For some authors, fear and anxiety are indistinguishable, whereas others believe that they are distinct phenomena. In particular fear is a generalized adaptive state of apprehension to an imminent threat (Michael Davis, 2010). It begins rapidly and dissipates rapidly once a threat is removed. Fear is provoked by imminent and real danger, Animals may learn to fear situations in which they have previously been exposed to pain or stress, and subsequently show avoidance behavior when they re-encounter that situation. Young animals may show an innate fear reaction to sudden noise or disturbances in the environment, but rapidly become habituated to them. When they are used to a familiar environment, then a fear of novelty may develop. Ethologists have also made the important observation that fear is often mixed up with other aspects of moti vation. Thus, conflict between fear and approach behavior may results in displacement activities (e.g., self-grooming in rats and mice). Such displacement activities may be the behavioral expression of an anxious state. In contrast anxiety is often elicited by less specific and less predicable threats (Michael Davis, 2010). Anxiety is a generalized response to an unknown threat or internal conflict, whereas fear is focused on known external danger. It has been suggested, anxiety can only be understood by taking into account some of its cognitive aspects, particularly because a basic aspect of anxiety appears to be uncertain. Originally, anxiety is associated with arousal and vigilance, as a result it can be defined as longer lasting state of apprehension that can become pathological if its become extreme.    Defense and coping strategies Fear or anxiety, result in the expression of a range of adaptive or defensive behaviors, which are aimed to escape from the source of danger or motivational conflict. These behaviors depend on the context and the repertoire of the species. Fight or flight, was coined exactly 75 years ago, in 1929, Walter Cannon originally formulated this term for the human response to threat, Fear and anxiety. The phrase fight or flight has influenced the understanding and expectations of both clinicians and patients. However, both the order and the completeness of Cannons famous phrase are suspect. Fight or flight mischaracterizes the ordered sequence of responses that mammals exhibit as a threat escalates or approaches. In recent years, ethologists working with nonhuman primates have clearly established distinct fear responses that proceed sequentially in response to increasing threat. The order of these responses may have important implications for understanding and treating acute stress in humans . The sequence, originally described by Jeffrey A. Gray, begins with what ethologists call the freeze response or freezing, terms corresponding to what clinicians typically refer to as hypervigilance (being on guard, watchful, or hyper-alert). This initial freeze response is the stop, look, and listen response associated with fear. The survival advantage of this response is obvious. Specifically, ethological research has demonstrated that prey that remains frozen during a threat are more likely to avoid detection because the visual cortex and the retina of mammalian carnivores primarily detect moving objects rather than color. Immobilization or freezing, are usually elicited when the threat is inescapable, and is characterized by autonomic inhibition (hypotension, bradycardia), and a more pronounced increase in the neuroendocrine response activation of the hypothalamopituitary-adrenal axis and increased glucocorticoid secretion. This type of passive response was originally described by Engel Schmale as a conservation-withdrawal strategy. The concept of alternative (active/passive) strategies itself owes much to the work of Henry and coworkers. Specific brain circuits appear to mediate distinct coping reactions to different types of stressors. Psychopathological fear/anxiety Although fear acts as a physiological signal of danger, threat, or motivational conflict, it can become pathological and interfere with the ability to survive. Development of specific anxiety disorders, i.e., social phobia, obsessive-compulsive and panic disorders or specific phobias are consequences of pathological fear expression. Anxiety disorders are marked by excessive future fear, often in response to specific objects or situations and in the absence of a true danger. Anxiety disorders are extremely common in the general population. According to a recent epidemiological study, the lifetime prevalence of any anxiety disorder is 28.8% (Kessler et al, 2005). Increased anxiety in animal models, as a trait, can be attributed to at least two sets of factors: (i) a genetic predisposition, essentially linked to the expression of genes that are involved in the various neurochemical mechanisms underlying fear and anxiety; and (ii) the influence of environmental factors. These environmental factors can interact with the expression of the relevant genes during early development and determine the functional properties of the neural and biochemical systems involved in coping with stressful events. They can also modulate the learning processes that occur at a later stage, when the individual is confronted with various life events, and determine the capacity to cope successfully with aversive or threatening situations in adulthood. These predisposing factors, either innate or acquired, determine individual affective styles or coping strategies, which are thought to play an important role in vulnerability to psychopathology. Brain structures and functional circuitry involved in fear/anxiety Limbic System: Emotional brain Limbic areas include the hippocampus (HPC), amygdala, cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus and the bed nucleus of striaterminalis (BNST). Hippocampus and amygdala are considered as a main area involves in emotion, but I will mainly focus on the amygdala. Hippocampus The hippocampus is a part of the forebrain, located in the medial temporal lobe. The hippocampus consists of the dentate gyrus, the Cornu Ammonis fields (CA1-CA3), and the subiculum. The main information input to the hippocampus is via the entorhinal cortex and the main information output from the hippocampus is via the subiculum. Between entorhinal cortex and subiculum, three major pathways of the hippocampus are described. The perforant pathway from entorhinal cortex forms excitatory connections with the granule cells of the dentate gyrus (Bliss and Lomo, 1973). The mossy fiber pathway, formed by the axons of the granule cells of the dentate gyrus, connects the granule cells with the pyramidal cells in the area CA3 of the hippocampus (Lu et al., 1997). The Schaffer collateral pathway connects the pyramidal cells of the CA3 region with the pyramidal cells in the CA1 region of the hippocampus (Collingridge et al., 1983). Amygdala The amygdala is a limbic system structure and is a key target area implicated in emotional processing. It is composed of several interconnected nuclei located in the medial temporal lobes in mammals and is reciprocally linked to sensory cortices, thalamus, and autonomic control centers (Sah et al., 2003). Its internal and external connections permit the amygdala to evaluate environmental stimuli, attach salience to them, then generate appropriate autonomic, endocrine, and behavioral responses (Adolphs, 1999; Rogan LeDoux, 1996; Walker Davis, 2002). In addition, the amygdala is involved in detecting and evaluating emotional expression (Adolphs, 1999). The lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA) has been implicated as the critical area where sensory stimuli achieve emotional salience. Consequently, the amygdala is needed for proper emotional processing, as in fear and anxiety, memory, and attention (Davis, 1997; Keele, Hughes, Blakeley, Herman, 2008; LeDoux, Cicchetti, Xagoraris, Roma nski, 1990). Plasticity in neurotransmission is important in maintaining the emotional significance of stimuli we encounter (Ehrlich, 2009). However, if those synapses and circuits become super-sensitized, what was once adaptive emotional behaviors can become psychopathologies, such as anxiety disorders and depression (Keele, 2005; Rosen Shulkin, 1998). Amygdala structure The amygdaloid complex is comprised of 13 nuclei, which are further divided into 3 groups: the basolateral complex, the cortical nuclei, and the centromedial nuclei. The basolateral complex is composed primarily of the basolateral (BLA) and lateral (LA) amygdala nuclei (Keele et al., 2008; Sah et al., 2003). Neuroanatomical studies reveal that there are extensive internuclear and reciprocal intranuclear connections (Pitkanen, Savander, LeDoux, 1997). Physiological studies further suggest that the amygdala nuclei are primarily individual functional units with the flow of information through the amygdala being highly organized, as seen in fear conditioning studies (LeDoux, 2000). Sensory afferents (context + tone) terminate in the LA (Romanski, Clugent, Bordi, LeDoux, 1993). The information proceeds in a predominantly unidirectional flow from the lateral to medial at which point the LA sends glutamatergic projections to the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), as well the BLA and o ther nuclei (Sah et al., 2003; Pitkanen et al., 1997; Smith Par eacute;, 1994). The CeA, where much of the amygdala nuclei projections converge and insubstantial intra-amygdaloid fibers exit, constitutes the output of the amygdala (Sah et al., 2003; Pitkanen et al., 1997). Two main cell types have been described morphologically and physiologically in the BLA (Rainnie, Asprodini, Shinnick-Gallagher, 1993; Sah et al., 2003). The first type is glutamatergic projection neurons that give off collaterals within the nucleus. They account for 70% of the neuronal population (McDonald, 1982). Their secondary and tertiary dendrites appear spiny, distinguishing them from the other neuronal type (Sah et al., 2003). In the LA, pyramidal neurons account for about 95% of the population. Pyramidal neurons show broad action potentials and spike frequency accommodation of varying degrees, and express N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA), a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA), and k ainate receptors. Main input to these neurons is cortical and thalamic, but they are highly modulated by interneurons and monoaminergic afferents from brain stem nuclei (Marowsky, Yanagawa, Obata, Vogt., 2005; Rainnie, 1999; Sah et al., 2003; Sullivan, Coplan, Kent, Gorman, 1999). The second type of neurons is interneurons, also called stellate cells (Sah et al., 2003). They account for 5-10% of the neurons in the BLA and are local circuit gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) releasing cells with short duration action potentials and no spike frequency accommodation. AMPA receptors are expressed but NMDA receptors are reportedly absent (Sah et al., 2003). Like the projection neurons, input is cortical and thalamic with modulatory input from brainstem nuclei (Lang and Par eacute;, 1998). Afferent and Efferent Connectivity Amygdala innervation consists of sensory input from the thalamus and cerebral cortex and autonomic input from the hypothalamus and brain stem (Keele et al., 2008; Sah et al., 2003). All sensory modalities glutamatergically project to the amygdala via the thalamus, sensory cortices, association cortices, and other polymodal cortical areas (McDonald, 1998; Romanski LeDoux, 1993; Sah et al., 2003). Brain stem projections provide monoaminergic modulation of the amygdala. There is extensive serotonergic innervation from the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), dopaminergic innervation from the ventral tegmental area, and noradrenergic innervation from the locus coeruleus (Clayton Williams, 2000;Marowsky et al., 2005; McIntyre, Power, Roozendaal, McGaugh, 2003; Rainnie, 1999). Main output of the amygdala is projected from the CeA. Lesion and stimulation studies have shown cortical, hypothalamic, and brain stem regions to be target areas, directly and indirectly through projections to the bed nuc leus of the stria terminalis (Iwata, Chida, LeDoux, 1987; LeDoux, Iwata, Cicchetti, Reis, 1988; LeDoux, 2000; Sah et al., 2003; Turner, Mishkin, Knapp, 1980; Walker Davis, 2002). CeA efferents modulate specific behavioral and autonomic responses to fear, anxiety, and stress (Davis, 1997; Rosen Schulken, 1998; Sah et al., 2003). The CeAs connection to the hypothalamus allows activation of the sympathetic nervous system, such as an increase in heartbeat, galvanic skin response, and pupil dilation in response to fear. For inducing behavioral responses to fear, there are projections from the CeA to brainstem nuclei. For instance, connections with the periaqueductal gray induce freezing behavior and with the nucleus reticularis pontis caudalis (PnC) increase acoustic startle response (Davis, 1992). The brainstem innervation is so extensive that the amygdala contacts almost every brainstem region involved in autonomic functioning (Keele et al., 2008; LeDoux, 1992; Price, 2003). Behavioral Function The amygdalas contribution to emotion has long been documented. Initially, monkey bilateral temporal lobectomy studies performed by Klà ¼ver and Bucy (1937 1939), resulted in agnosia, hyperorality, hypersexuality, social withdrawl, difficulty recognizing emotionality of objects, and placidity. This became known as Klà ¼ver-Bucy syndrome. In following amygdalectomy studies a loss of fear, aggression, and normal social interactions with an increase in exploration was found (Goddard, 1964; Aggleton Young, 2000). Rodent lesion studies further demonstrated decreased active fear avoidance (Poremba Gabriel, 1999) and decreased passive conditioned fear response (Roozendaal, Koolhaas, Bohus, 1993), for instance, amygdala lesioned rats fail to show freezing behavior in the presence of danger, such as a cat (Blanchard Blanchard, 972). Specific lesioning of the lateral nucleus of the amygdala blocked conditioned fear (LeDoux et al., 1990). Amygdalectomized humans also show impairments in fear conditioning (LaBar, LeDoux, Spencer, Phelps, 1995). Additionally, human subjects do not recognize fear from facial expressions, voices, (Adolphs, Tranel, Damasio, Damasio, 1995), or music (Gosselin et al., 2005), and judge deceitful looking individuals as trustworthy (Adolphs, Tranel, Damasio, 1998). Stimulation and activation studies further corroborate amygdala lesion evidence. Human amygdala stimulation often produces observable fear responses as well as subjective feelings of fear (for review see Davis, 1992). Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) further shows activation of the amygdala during viewing of fearful faces (Rosen Donley, 2006) and following fear conditioning when the conditioned stimulus is presented (LaBar, Gatenby, Gore, LeDoux, Phelps, 1998). In animals, amygdala stimulation shows an increase in behaviors, such as, vigilance, attention, and arousal (Rosen Schulkin, 1998) and an increase in autonomic responding; such as, respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure (for review see Davis, 1992). Additional emotions reported in humans have been anger and rage (Joseph, 2000). One female subject displayed enraged facial expressions, lips retracted and grimacing, then progressed to aggressive behavior and attack (Mark, Ervin, Sweet, 1972). These are emotional behavior autonomic responses that are often a component of the fear response. Fear Conditioning and Long-Term Potentiation One commonly used technique for studying amygdala function in both animals and humans is conditioned fear learning (Bà ¼chel, Morris, Dolan, Friston, 1998; Walker Davis 2002). To accomplish this type of learning a neutral sensory stimulus (conditioned stimulus or CS, often a light or tone) is paired with a noxious stimulus (unconditioned stimulus or US) such as a mild electric shock. Upon repeated US-CS pairing the learned association between the two stimuli elicits a behavioral response (conditioned response or CR) that can last indefinitely with o nly a few pairings (Maren, 2005). The convergence of the cortical sensory input and thalamic relays from the spinothalamic tract in the amygdala as well as the abolishment of learned fear response after amygdala lesions implicate it as the site for conditioned fear learning (LeDoux et al., 1990; Ledoux, 2000). The learned association as well as the fear behavioral response is seen across many species and has been extensively studied in rats, cats, primates, and humans. The neural mechanisms have also been conserved across these animal species and probably humans as well (LeDoux, 1996; Price, 2003). Long-term potentiation (LTP) functions as a mechanism for increasing synaptic strength between two neurons. Experimentally it can be induced by tetanic stimulation of afferent fibers; however, naturally occurring similar mechanisms are induced in the LA during conditioned fear learning (McKernan Shinnick-Gallagher, 1997; Rogan LeDoux, 1996; LeDoux, 2000). Support comes from the observat ion that before conditioning, neurons in the LA respond to CS and US input. After conditioning, the postsynaptic neurons response to the CS is greatly enhanced. This suggests that fear conditioning provides a suitable means for examining amygdala synaptic plasticity and fear circuitry. The proposed LTP molecular mechanism initiating fear conditioning is that the CS induces a release of glutamate, which activates the glutamatergic receptors on postsynaptic LA neurons. The US further depolarizes the neurons causing the release of the Mg2+ block in the NMDA receptors (NMDARs) allowing an influx of Ca2+. The additional Ca2+ initiates second messenger cascades that are responsible for the increased neuronal response to the CS. Blocking NMDARs with the antagonist DL-2-amino-5- phosphonovalerate (APV) prevents the acquisition of fear conditioning. If APV is delivered after training it does not affect the consolidation of the fear memory further supporting the necessary involvement of NMDAR s in the LTP mechanism. Ca2+ influx due to L-type voltage-gated calcium channels (L-VGCCs) is also required for the association to occur. The L-VGCCs may be opening in response to the strong depolarization from the US, especially when postsynaptic spiking and back-propagating action potentials occur. How learned fear memories are acquired and the mechanisms involved is essential to understanding normal amygdala functioning. Fear conditioning provides a means for studying dysfunction of fear circuitry and the resulting abnormal fear behaviors. Fear circuitry receives intense inhibitory modulation. When the inhibition is removed the fear conditioning mechanisms, such as LTP, are unmodulated and the circuitry enters a hyperexcited state. This could potentially lead to abnormally enhanced fear associations resulting in heightened fear responses. Manipulating the fear circuitry by altering inhibitory modulators and then assessing the fear behavior responses could elucidate the mechanisms leading to fear and anxiety disorders. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) system: Involvement in fear and anxiety NPY: Overview Neuropeptide Y(NPY) was isolated from porcine brain more than two decades ago (Tatemoto et al., 1982). This 36-amino-acid residue is one of the most abundant peptides found in the central nervous system (CNS) of all mammals, including humans {Chan-Palay et al., 1985; Chan-Palay et al., 1986}. It is one of the most conserved peptides in evolution (Larhammar, 1996; Larhamar and Salaneck, 2004), suggesting an important role in the regulation of basic physiological functions (Larhammar et al., 1993). At present, five NPY receptor subtypes have been cloned and designated-Y1, Y2, Y4, Y5, and y6 (Dumont et al., 1993; Gehlert, 1994; Michel et al., 1998)-all of which couple to Gi/o proteins and inhibit the production of cyclic AMP (Palmiter et al., 1998). NPY has important modulatory functions in the immune and cardiovascular systems (Song et al., 1996; Michalkiewicz et al., 2001), circadian rhythms (Antonijevic et al., 2000; Yannielli and Harrington, 2001), food intake (Jolicoeur et al., 199 5), and seizure (Husum et al., 1998; Colmers and El Bahh, 2003) and the response to pain (Munglani et al., 1996). NPY is involved in anxiety related behaviors (Thorsell and Heilig, 2002), and there is increasing support for the role of NPY in mood disorders such as depression (Redrobe et al., 2002a). It is constantly reported that NPY producing anxiolytic-like effect and can be observed different battery of behavioral tests like elevated plus maze, light dark, open field, and stressed induced hyperthermia. Consistent findings across different rodent modes have been proving the true anxiolytic effect of NPY. The presence of different NPY receptors and the plethora of NPY-induced behavioral effect raise the question as to whether NPY and its receptors have an effect on fear, and extinction of conditioned fear. The NPY Y1 receptors can be found in number of brain regions but prominent in cerebral cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus (Kask et al., 2002). The majority of studies have been proved the involvement of NPY Y1 receptor in the regulation of anxiety. In the present study I am focusing on fear reducing properties of NPY following the hypothesis that anxiolytic-like effect of NPY mediated my Y1 receptors.

Dominant Women in Society :: essays research papers

In the story Hunger as Ideology by Susan Bordo women are portrayed as passive and inferior to men. Bordo looks into advertisements to prove her point about how visible it is that women are how they are suppose to be dainty and quaint. In the movie â€Å"The Thomas Crown Affair† it is totally opposite; the woman in this story is independent, strong, and self-reliant. She is able to outsmart him and prove to him that she is able to survive without any help. The modern women has transformed and broken the stereotype and have made their way into society as an equal. Nowadays, advertisements depict how women should act, dress, and eat. For example in Hunger as Ideology, it show two different advertisements for Haagen-Dazs Ice cream, one with a man who just finished a half-pint smiling, the other with a woman who just took a bite from her ice cream bar. Although very discreet, the message is visible to consumers. Another example, are the sugar-free Jell-o ads, where an attractive slender woman is leaning back on a chair eating jell-o from a glass. Above the picture is a quote which says, â€Å"I’m a girl who just can’t say no. I insist on dessert†. To the side of the ad, it states, â€Å"Every woman is entitles to her just desserts. Just as long as dessert is Sugar Free Jell-O Gelatin. It’s light and fruity and fun. And it’s only calories.† This ad emphasizes on how women want dessert, but its only okay to have it if its sugar free. â€Å"The dessert you don’t have to desert† because itâ€⠄¢s sugar free. Same concept with the Wonder Light Bread, in this ad two women are side by side on a park bench one holding a carrot, the other happily smiling with a sandwich and the ad saying, â€Å" You’ll think your cheating, but you know your not†¦It’s Wonder Light bread†. These ads accentuate how its okay to eat a lot, as long as you eat â€Å"light†. Women look upon these ads and are convinced that this is how they are suppose to be, but in the Thomas Crown Affair, the message is completely opposite. Catherine Banning, is the insurance lawyer for the case against the stolen Monet painting in the â€Å"Thomas Crown Affair†. It is evident that she is a strong independent woman who needs not to rely on anyone especially a man.

Crime In Pakistan Essay -- Criminal Justice, Pakistani

The world has evolved into a system which has a sophisticated set of laws encompassing our lives in this modern society. This set of laws is a significant part of our society which holds it together and aims at protecting it against any harm. Infringing this very system is termed as a crime. Across the world, with so many different legal systems of various countries, the laws also differ accordingly and the definition of crime is perceived through those set of laws, henceforth, different perceptions of crime are existing. Pakistani society, of which I am a part of, perceives crime to be something which detriments the social order, harmony and peace. It is a misfortune that this crime is being done at an alarmingly rate since a decade now. A more startling fact is that the ones who are committing this crime are the ones who are running the government which claims to protect the very set of laws they are violating. So, how can such a governing body deal with crimes they themselves are committing and prevent others from doing it to maintain the social order? I strongly believe that ...

An Inspiration :: Personal Narrative Writing

An Inspiration â€Å"Just try it. It couldn’t hurt to try,† my high-school advertising teacher constantly reminded me. Mrs. Panarelli wanted me to apply for a scholarship given by the business department in my school. I thought about all the other applicants; I had no chance whatsoever. I decided to express my feelings to her. In doing so I noticed a solemn look come across her face. I asked her what was wrong, and she said, â€Å"I don’t want you to be intimidated by the other students, their averages, or their SAT scores; this is a very good opportunity for you.† Finally, she convinced me to apply for it. I had to write a resumà ¨, an application letter, and schedule an interview. To my surprise, this was a big deal for the business department. When going on the interview, one had to dress as if applying for a job. The amount the scholarship awarded was not very much, just enough to recognize your accomplishments in this field. Like Nicholas Gage, the author of â€Å"The Teacher Who Changed My Life,† his Ms. Hurd was my Mrs. Panarelli, â€Å"the teacher who would become my mentor and my muse† (187). Both teachers find their students’ interests and shape them to achieve the highest standings in their chosen field. With motivation and compassion, both Nicholas and I worked endlessly to prove our potential to Ms. Hurd and Mrs. Panarelli. In a myriad of ways, the teaching methods of both my advertising teacher and Nicholas’ English teacher are similar. Before I set foot into Mrs. Panarelli’s illuminated classroom, I had never been interested in majoring or even succeeding in the field of business. Advertising II, in my school, was an elective which was well known as a â€Å"time sucker,† meaning it was an easy course that would only help your average and fill up your schedule. To be honest, like every other student in the class, I did not take it seriously. However, it became serious when I was made aware of the grades I was getting. Something didn’t seem right. I was not â€Å"slacking off.† I was doing my work well, perhaps not to my potential, but I wasn’t getting the grades I expected. Many times I would look around the room at others and what their work was like, and I couldn’t believe it.

How ICT has helped people with special needs Essay

Introduction In this essay I will be analysing how the usage of ICT helps people with special needs. There are 3 types of special needs. What is a physical disability? The term â€Å"disability†, as it is applied to humans, refers to any condition that impedes the completion of daily tasks using traditional methods. National governments and global humanitarian agencies have narrowed this definition for their own purposes, only pledging aid to those with specific disabilities of a certain severity What is a sensory disability? Is when someone is you are Deaf, visually impaired, hearing impaired or have a significant combination of hearing and sight loss. What is a learning difficulty? A disorder in basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or use mathematical calculations. The term includes conditions such as perceptual disability, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. How ICT is used to help those with Learning Difficulties Multimedia software Helps people who find it hard to concentrate. It uses different forms of media, pictures, sound clips and video to keep the user interested. Specialised educational software There’s a huge range of software available to help people struggling with different subjects and useful tips e. g. help with reading and basic maths. Touch screens These are useful for people who finding using a mouse or any other sort of input device difficult. Spell checkers Can help people with dyslexia who finds it difficult to spell; you can set it up so check your words as you type. How ICT is used to help those with visual difficulties. People with hearing difficulties can still use most computer functions normally. One thing you can do though is set up the computer to display visual icons rather than using sound. DVDs are much better than videotapes as you can use the subtitle facilities. Many recent communication technologies like e-mail and texting work really well for people with hearing. Being able to set mobile phones to vibrate or flash is also very useful. Text phones are an older system that replaces a standard telephone with a keyboard and a screen. What you type on both screens- a bit like a chat-room. Both sender and receiver need a text phone machine. If a person has problem seeing or is completely blind they would be categorized as having a Visual disabilities. If a person cannot read small type then there are a lot of magnification devices out on the market, which fit almost anything from phones to monitors. For example a person with low vision would use a keyboard with extra large print. If a person is completely blind then they would use a speech recognition device. Changing the screen settings can help. You can also change the colour scheme, screen resolution and fonts to make it clearer. For the blind, special hardware is available- Braille keyboards make it easy to type, and describe what’s on the screen. Screen readers are pieces of software that use speech synthesis technology to read out and describe what’s on the screen. Text-To-Speech. A text-to-speech is designed for individuals with reading difficulties. It works by simultaneously highlights and reading aloud of text. There are other devices for people with reading disabilities such as spellcheckers How ICT is used to help those with hearing difficulties. Speech Recognition There are two uses for speech recognition these are Dictation and Computer control. Speech recognition is one of the desired assistive technology systems. People believe speech recognition is a natural and easy method of accessing the computer A dyslexic person who has problems with writing English would use the speech recognition to make sure their English is correct. A person planning to use speech recognition must be aware he is required to go through a training session. This is a one-time reading when the user must read aloud an excerpt of text that is displayed during the training feature of the speech recognition application. Depending upon the speech recognition software, there is several enrolment training excerpts to select from. A person planning to use speech recognition must be aware he is required to go through an enrolment (training) session. This is a one-time reading when the user must read aloud an excerpt of text that is displayed during the training feature of the speech recognition application. (For an example of enrolment text, please see What Is Speech Recognition) Depending upon the speech recognition software, there is several enrolment training excerpts to select from. Personal Communicator tool for Learning and Communicating Sign Language. The Personal Communicator creates a common ground for communicating in Sign Language. Using hypermedia technology, the Personal Communicator is a user-friendly program that brings sign language communication capabilities to the desktop and notebook computer. With more than 2500 digital video signs and 4500 English words. The Personal Communicator can be a useful tool in communication, education, and other environments. If someone is not able to use a mouse because they haven’t got full control in there hands then there are mouse alternatives to help people with the disabilities. How ICT can help those with Physical Difficulties Many people find mice difficult to use- there are many alternatives such as tracker balls, Joy Sticks and tough pads. People with limited hand movement can get specially designed keyboards to suit there needs. Voice Recognition software can be used by people with little or no hand movement. It lets you speak to the computer to navigate menus and do what you want it to do. If you are severely limited, you can use a computer with switches carefully arranged- Stephen Hawking is a famous example of someone who uses ICT in this way. For people with limited mobility, environmental control systems can be set up to atomically open, close curtains, turn lights on and off, operate heaters and so on. How ICT can help those with Language difficulties Dictionary software can help you to quickly translate individual words. Learning software can help you practise an unfamiliar language with exercises where you can hear phrases spoken. It can also record your voice and play it back to see how well you have done. Most word processing packages can check your spelling in different languages and check that your sentences make sense. In conclusion it is fair to say that people with disabilities might need variations on the standard equipment to use computers, but once they have these mentioned above I am sure it can change the way they live.

Gender Inequality Essay

Gender can be defined as the socially constructed roles and duties society constructs, assigns and expects of males and females on the basis of their biological and physical characteristics. Gender is learnt, not permanent and differs from one community to another. Gender roles and responsibilities are found in all spheres of society be it economic, social, political or religious. Gender roles are affected by age, social class, ability, ethnicity and race. The gender roles help society to determine men and women access to rights, resources and opportunities. Gender in this perspective is not just a concept, but about perceptions and understanding concerning the affiliation between males and females in society and how gender influences their attitudes, behavior and responsibilities. Gender inequality refers to unequal treatment of men and women that are against the legal and constitutional requirement such as the human rights provisions as enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Hum an Rights of 1948 & The Convention on the Eradication of all forms of discrimination against females (1979). Most countries have, however, fallen short of entitling human rights and freedoms to everyone in society regardless of their sex (Michael 12). Gender inequality varies from developed countries to developing countries. Also considering that the world is comprised of different tribes and races that have distinct values and beliefs, gender inequality will vary with the same intensity. Such inequalities include the professional obstacles that women encounter in their workplaces. It is evident that women’s lack of leadership positions because such roles are considered to be meant for men. Those who are mothers may be penalized or discriminated for taking time off to attend to their children. The controversial issue concerning gender inequality is the need to acknowledge the unequal power relations between men and women in society and to work for greater gender equality and the advancement of women. It does not only mean the identification of specific areas that are important for women’s advancements, but also attempts to introduce a dimension of gender in all activities. It also means there is recognition of how important it is to work with both men and women to change the existing gender relations. According to the United States Census data, there is a gender wage gap in which women earn 77 cents for each dollar earned by a man. The gap is a matter of concern that has prompted  President Obama to announce the Paycheck fairness Act on Equal Pay Day. However, according to the one of the lead economist the statistics behind the gender wage gap are flawed. The flawed statistics have acted hindrance and distracter to the legislator and concerned public from finding the solutions that would solve the real problem-the gender jobs gap. The Census data that give the 77 cents on dollar comparison is based on aggregate earning of men and women thus ignoring job choice, education, experience, industry, and other factors that contribute to a person’s wage. If a comparison is made between men and women with the same background such as education and experience, same employer, among other the gender gap disappears. The reasons why the gender job gap exists is the due to low number of female occupying high executive levels and director positions. Men also are earning higher than women despite being in the same senio r-level jobs. The choice of work is a major that determine potential earnings. Men tend to take relatively high-paying jobs in engineering and IT, while women take low-paying jobs like education and human resources. The gender gap persists because men and women choose to pursue different careers (Autor et al, 2008). The gender job gap can be closed, if women are encouraged to pursue high-paying career in science, technology, mathematics, and engineering. Legislation should be formulated to bridge the gap in men and women career choice. An enabling environment should create in the workplace where women can be empowered and helped to rise to top executive positions. Comparing the job to job is not tenable solution in addressing the gender wage gap; more need to be done to bring women earning close to that of men (Juhn et al, 2014). Gender inequality also involves feticide and infanticide. For instance, in India and China, a male child is more appreciated than a female child. Parents have to find out the sex of the baby they are carrying so as to decide whether to terminate the pregnancy or kill the child after its birth (Kristoff, 69). One of my family members in China, my cousin who has a bias th at boys better than girls. I was very angry that he convinced his wife went to abortion because his wife pregnant with a girl when I knew he did that. He explained that China has the birth control policy and he just want to a boy to continue his family name. In the legal area at China, it wasn’t involve in crime for what he did. However, in the ethical area, he deprive his wife’s thought and the  baby who didn’t has chance come to the world. I think he against the humanity and nature. There are also a number of organizations in society that play key roles in the construction of gender. These organizations need to be gender sensitive so as to ensure they continue in the positive construction of gender equality. Such organizations include the family, the most imperative socializing proxy, school, media and religion. Several theoretical perspectives exist that tend to explain the origin of gender inequalities. Radical feminists argue that the gender inequalities arise from the biological differences among individuals that produce a form of social organization that equip men and women with the different roles they play in society. For example, women are handicapped by their biology in terms of pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding that makes them dependent on men. This dependence creates an une qual power relationships and power psychology. They also argue that, in every society, a high value is placed on culture rather than nature. Through culture, supernatural forces can be sought in order to achieve success, hence it is considered a means by which humanity governs and regulates nature. Women are seen closer to nature than men because of their social roles as mothers and reproduction (Hekman 52). Men, on the other hand, participate in activities such as warfare, politics that involve culture. This makes them better to women. From a Marxist perspective, gender inequality arose during the earlier stages of development when there was ownership of private property. Men gained control over the women and property hence the patriarchal system of family where property was passed down through the male’s line. Marxists thought this would change with the capitalist system but women still continue to be disadvantaged compared to men. On the contrary, liberal feminists approached gender inequality in a more elaborate way. They argued that nobody benefits from the existing gender inequalities since both men and women are harmed by inequalities. While women do not get opportunities to develop their talents and become successful and skilled members, men are also denied the o pportunity of having a close relationship with their children. Gender inequality is caused by the general credence that males are superior to females; because of this idea, women have spent some significant amount of years suffering under their counterparts. Males also tend to be more emphatic and absolute because of their natal hormones or intuitive  intellect. Sexual discrimination is also another major cause of gender inequality where women are viewed by men as just sex objects rather than real human beings with standards and morals. Other general contributing factors of gender inequality include unequal power relations, assumptions about male and female behavior, insufficient laws against gender inequality, cultural, traditional and religious practices. I became aware of this problem through the campaigns that the government and other Non-Governmental Organizations have held. Their efforts are directed towards ensuring that gender inequality is minimized all over the world. Awareness is being created among women where they get to be educated on their rights and freedoms (Hurst, 96). The women are being empowered through sponsoring women projects as a way of generating income that makes them less dependable on women. The media is al so playing a vital role on the sensitization of ways of minimizing gender inequality in the societies. Higher education in universities and colleges also promotes women support and all levels of society. The government is doing everything in its power to increase the productivity of women by initiating income generating projects. However, they do not take into account that women are already overburdened with work, they do not control family budgets and many of them have difficulties of freedom and movement. It is evident that the informal sector has limited employment opportunities and these projects will not be taken with the seriousness it deserves despite having the ability to empower the women. It is also easy to mobilize individuals or groups for a specific goal such as a political action or assisting members who are in need. In this case curbing, the menace of gender inequality in the society will be of great help. This is because it has charged most nations more harm than good. Most people have depicted that certain duties and tasks are to be performed by certain persons making gender imbalance. Heavy duties are usually dedicated to men while the simple ones are left to the females creating a huge difference in genders. Until all these issues are addressed there is no way that the nation and the globe will ever achieve gender balance. Work cited Michael G. Peletz, Gender, Sexuality and Body Politics in Modern Asia. Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Asian studies, 2011. Kristoff, Nicholas D. (August 23, 2009). â€Å"The Women’s Crusade.† New York Times. Retrieved February 16, 2011. Burstein, Paul. â€Å"Equal Employment Opportunity: Labor Market Discrimination and Public Policy.† Edison, NJ: Aldine Transaction, 1994. Hekman, David R.; Aquino, Karl; Owens, Brad P.; Mitchell, Terence R.; (2009) An Examination of How Racial and Gender Biases Influence Customer Satisfaction. Autor, D. H., Katz, L. F., & Kearney, M. S. (2013). Trends in US wage inequality: Revising the revisionists. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 90(2), 300-323. Juhn, C., Ujhelyi, G., & Villegas-Sanchez, C. (2014). Men, women, and machines: how trade impacts gender inequality. Journal of Development Economics, 106, 179-193.